Essay Topics and Examples - Use Examples to Write Your Paper

Article Topics and Examples - Use Examples to Write Your PaperUsing models and exposition subjects for composing a paper is probably the most ideal approaches to compose the exposition. Truth be told, it is a decent procedure. It can truly assist you with ensuring that your composing is as clear and succinct as could be expected under the circumstances. So on the off chance that you need to utilize guides to compose your expositions, here are some tips.o Choose the subject of your paper cautiously. In the event that you choose to utilize guides to compose an article, it is significant that you pick subjects that will show the point you need to make. For instance, in the event that you need to discuss development, you could expound on a task you have dealt with or the undertaking you have assisted a companion with. On the off chance that you utilize this sort of model, your peruser will have a superior comprehension of the subject.o Find a genuine model that will suit your theme. At t he point when you pick a model for your paper, ensure that you pick one that is pertinent to the theme. On the off chance that you don't pick a subject dependent on one model, your perusers won't comprehend what you mean. This may appear to be an undeniable tip, however once in a while it is anything but difficult to overlook when reading.o Use models that are pertinent to the exposition subject. At the point when you pick a model, ensure that it is pertinent to the current subject. Truth be told, it is significant that you pick a subject that is pertinent to the point since you need to ensure that your perusers get what you are attempting to pass on to them. As such, you need them to comprehend the point you are attempting to make.o Consider utilizing intriguing models. A model should give you an unmistakable thought regarding how to compose an exposition. In any case, it is additionally significant that you incorporate models that tell you the best way to utilize guides to compose an essay.o Try not to neglect to utilize article subjects and guides to compose a paper. Once in a while, you might not have the opportunity to investigate about the theme you need to compose about.o Do not neglect article subjects and models. Since a paper is normally a long work, you have to ensure that you incorporate article points and models. Thusly, you can ensure that your perusers will have the option to comprehend what you are attempting to say.After you follow these tips, you will have the option to make a magnificent article. Since it isn't that difficult to do, you can without much of a stretch do it without anyone's help. The way to composing an article is to gain for a fact and make sense of the tips above.

List of Social Justice Issues And How to Avoid Them

Rundown of Social Justice Issues And How to Avoid ThemIn the United States, an entrepreneur has the option to incorporate a meaning of the 'Farming and Food Research Initiative' in their business' marking plan. So now what? While this may appear as though an innocuous utilization of government-subsidized examination financing, the data contained inside the definition is tragically uncovering of the genuine idea of the USDA, in this instance.The definition remembers consideration of uses for subsidizing for connection to food added substances, pesticides, petrochemicals, and hereditarily adjusted living beings (GMOs), just as ox-like development hormones. Any food preparing organization that gets any of these financing applications will get extra investigation, since such applications are probably going to be connected to any potential allegations of false research.The rundown of social issues concerning this specific subsidizing proposition is likewise very upsetting. In particular, the word 'social' seems multiple times inside the archive, which, as indicated by the Fair Credit Reporting Act, necessitates that it be given 'due consideration.'A entrepreneur can decide to overlook these recommendations totally, or be increasingly worried about the other all the more socially-charged issues inside the proposed venture. This might be something that an organization must do to guarantee that they can stay away from any outcomes that could be given to them by clients, shoppers, or employees.Many organizations are uncertain of the specific ramifications that they could have on the business' capacity to lead business and build up a true effect on social equity issues. This is a difficult that don't just influence the professional workplace, yet additionally the administration. With each new industry supported by citizen dollars, there is an expanded possibility that specialists will be seen as representing a likely threat.Due to the way that the norms and procedure use d to distinguish false associations have not been made unmistakably known to organizations, quite possibly a few people who wish to look for subsidizing so as to lead research for any of the previously mentioned issues will be affirmed for financing. The specialists who get this subsidizing will be not able to push ahead with their undertakings because of the intense reaction against such practices.Any entrepreneur who wishes to abstain from being deserted as far as social equity gives that exist today is encouraged to set aside some effort to acclimate themselves with the words, expressions, and meanings of words that are regularly connected to the subject. In actuality, organizations can even make this one stride further and turn into a supporter of issues that might be causing the most social foul play today.While this may sound to some degree overwhelming, there are various American organizations who are prepared to turn into an encouraging sign with regards to making change. By understanding the issues that have happened consistently, numerous organizations can use their impact to help the individuals who are influenced by such arrangements, and have made a move to forestall any likely adverse impacts.

Writing A Western Civilization Essay Topic

Composing A Western Civilization Essay TopicThe motivation behind this article is to talk about why understudies need to concentrate on Western human progress paper points when they compose an exposition for school. How about we consider the accompanying example.A understudy from a remote nation has never been to America. It would not be unreasonably difficult for her to discover what America is about, and what they mean by Western human advancement. We will accept that she doesn't have any assumptions of what American culture is. For contention, how about we expect that she is all around educated regarding the essential segments of American society.Now, we should think of her as discoveries, and inquire as to whether there is any connection between the American lifestyle and culture, and the remainder of the world's perspective on America. In the event that there is no relationship, that is fine, yet there is a likelihood that the way of life of the remainder of the world have some connect to the American method of life.Let's envision that an outside understudy has a hypothesis about the way of life of America. We should likewise accept that she accepts that western culture is essentially about opportunity and independence. At the end of the day, she accepts that western development is tied in with being allowed to do what one needs, up to one doesn't hurt others. She likewise accepts that she can make progress in this way.Now how about we contrast this hypothesis and the recorded substance of the exposition point. Would the understudies discount their paper by beginning with that the western culture is worked around correspondence, and opportunity? Or on the other hand, would they start with an alternate hypothesis? Would they start with the thought that the idea of Western human advancement is about singularity, and a dismissal of the normal practices of the general public wherein they live?Of course, every understudy would compose their article points as in dicated by the way that they believe is ideal. Nonetheless, I feel that the understudies who accept that the Western human advancement is about freedom and independence should begin with this idea. All things considered, it appears to be an increasingly legitimate point of view to them. One could contend that they ought to likewise consider the idea of the American lifestyle dependent on their perceptions of America, yet I believe that the United States of America is an a lot bigger element than just a question of individual freedoms.From my perceptions, most American's are very enemy of social, yet they esteem being a piece of the American culture. While I was in America, I saw numerous individuals satisfying themselves by doing things that they appreciate, despite the fact that it was against the normal practices of society. There are even American famous people who live by this conviction, and make a huge effort to live by the western culture.I accept that by composing an article about the American lifestyle, the understudies would be increasingly persuaded to perform better in class, since they would be more on top of what American culture is about. In the event that they do, at that point they will have the option to get by thusly, which is the reason it is a smart thought to begin with a Western Civilization paper theme, and not a general conversation about American culture. Thusly, they can be more ready to compose the course evaluation of their friends.

Where to Find the Best Website to Write My Research Paper

Where to Find the Best Website to Write My Research PaperIf you're attempting to make sense of the best site to compose my examination paper on, you have to ensure that you're utilizing the best devices to assist you with this. On the off chance that you don't, you'll likely find that your examination paper isn't equivalent to it could have been.This implies that you have to ensure that you're not going to burn through your time and cash on something that is going to raise you to experience the ruckus of finding other exploration papers that are fundamentally the same as yours. You can just get what you pay for with the examination papers that you purchase, so you should take as much time as necessary with regards to finding the correct ones for you.One of the greatest elements that you have to think about while picking the best site to compose my exploration paper on is the way that it has been planned by an expert. The explanation that you need to ensure that you're going to discov er somebody who has involvement in this specific region is on the grounds that there are a few people out there who aren't truly adept at doing this and they wind up experiencing the difficulty of causing it to create the impression that they have more understanding than they really do.You need to ensure that you're not going to burn through your time and cash on somebody who isn't in reality acceptable at doing this since they're not going to have the option to help you in this circumstance. It will be amazingly hard for you to decide if you're really going to get the outcomes that you're searching for in case you're utilizing someone who's not really qualified to compose your exploration paper on.The second thing that you have to do with regards to picking the best site to compose my examination paper on is to ensure that you're going to discover one that is going to offer you incredible client assistance. There are a few people out there who have the entirety of the experience th at they need, yet then they don't utilize it since they're worried about the possibility that that their clients will gripe about them.They will in general overlook that the clients that they're managing are individuals who are paying cash for their item or administration, and they truly shouldn't hope to get a lot of regard from them in the event that they don't treat them the way that they need to be dealt with. It may sound hard to accept, however there are many individuals out there who really treat their clients inadequately in light of the fact that they don't have a clue about any better, and they don't have the right stuff to catch up on them.This implies that they should consider an expert site to compose my examination paper on in the event that they need to be dealt with appropriately. You have to ensure that you're going to discover one who will have the option to catch up with you with regards to your exploration paper, and that they will have the option to deal with ev erything that you need to say.The last thing that you have to do with regards to picking the best site to compose my examination paper on is to ensure that you're going to discover one that is going to offer you approaches to ensure that you're getting the best outcomes from your task. A great many people who need to utilize the web to compose their exploration paper find that they will do a decent measure of research and afterward invest a ton of energy searching for something that they will have the option to get a fair profit for their interest in it.

Scholarships Essay - Use the LLM Scholarship Essay Examples

Grants Essay - Use the LLM Scholarship Essay ExamplesWriting a LLM grant paper has become an extremely serious craftsmanship. To stand apart from the group, you should compose an extraordinary exposition and have a very much organized paper that will talk obviously to the peruser. You ought to likewise stay away from unoriginality and furthermore be aware of your spending plan as you are going to buckle down on your essay.There are numerous favorable circumstances in utilizing the LLM grant paper tests. It is actually a good thought to buy these at a deal cost since they will set aside you cash and this will permit you to get them as quickly as time permits. You can discover these examples online by essentially doing a quest for LLM Scholarship Essay tests. You should simply contrast the cost of these examples with your nearby book shop to see which one is a superior deal.One of the advantages of utilizing the LLM grant article tests is that they arrive in a digital book position whi ch implies that you can download the PDF record of the paper as long as you have the product to do as such. The vast majority like to exploit any free data that they can get their hands on so the eBook group is an extraordinary method to get the free data that you need. The eBook configuration will likewise give all of you the scholastic thoughts that you should get your grant paper completed.When you are searching for the exposition test, you will be shocked at the quantity of various decisions that you have accessible to you with regards to composing a grant article. Notwithstanding the free digital books that you can discover on the web, you can likewise utilize the models that are remembered for a considerable lot of different books that are distributed by distributers. Because you can download the example doesn't imply that you won't have the option to profit by them in your own writing.By utilizing the expert composing eBook that accompanies the PDF record, you will have every thing that you need so as to finish your grant article. It will incorporate the scholastic thoughts that you should ensure that you are introducing the data in the most ideal manner. The models that are remembered for the eBook are given to assist you with getting started.You would prefer not to just duplicate down the thoughts and afterward wind up confronting an enormous heap of work when you are attempting to compose a grant article. The eBook will help you by furnishing you with everything that you have to ensure that you are finishing the whole employment. The eBook is incredible in the event that you have an inclination that you are overpowered by the composing undertakings that you need to perform.In request to take full advantage of the grant exposition tests, you should begin learning as much as possible about the theme. You will find this is significant with regards to your grant paper. The eBook will permit you to learn as much as possible about the theme with the goal th at you can comprehend what to compose and where to start your essay.When you are composing a grant article, you ought to never stop to consider the individual that you are composing for. They are your perusers and they are the ones that will choose whether or not you get the cash that you are looking for. Utilizing the grant exposition tests will assist you with composing a paper that is fruitful.

Tips For How to Essay Topics

Tips For How to Essay TopicsThere are various papers that can be utilized for how to exposition points. The subjects that will be talked about in the paper will affect how your exposition is composed and how much data is contained inside the whole structure. On the off chance that you wish to find out about how to compose the exposition, at that point you have to comprehend the different kinds of subjects that are accessible to you as an understudy. A few points are going to concentrate on certain topic while others will be totally unrelated.Depending on the theme that you decide to cover in your article, there will be a wide range of zones that you will be ready to expound on. To assist you with making sense of what to expound on, you should realize that there are many paper composing guides accessible online that you can exploit. You can utilize these advisers for assist you with conceptualizing various thoughts and see what sorts of inquiries you may be posing to yourself as you c ompose your essay.When you use paper composing advisers for figure out how to compose the exposition, it is conceivable that you may have the option to concoct some extraordinary thoughts that you could never have thought of something else. Numerous individuals probably won't understand that a few subjects really loan themselves well to exposition points and others don't. It is conceivable that you can think of a subject dependent on your examination or even upon your own observations.There are numerous tips that can be given with regards to composing an article also. These tips are things that each understudy should know with regards to exposition composing. At the point when you set aside the effort to comprehend these tips, you can be certain that you will be ready to compose a superior and all the more elegantly composed essay.One of the primary tips that you ought to know about with regards to how to exposition subjects is that you ought to consistently pick a theme that is ide ntified with your major or that you are keen on. For instance, on the off chance that you were keen on playing baseball, at that point you ought to have the option to expound on how you turned into an athlete. At the point when you choose a theme that has something to do with you, you will have the option to utilize this subject to your advantage.Secondly, it is significant that you know when the correct chance to compose the paper is. Most understudies will in general disregard the significance of when to compose the exposition, so this is something that you should be helped to remember. Realizing when to compose an article can assist you with expanding your degree of profitability as well.Last, yet not least, you ought to figure out how to discuss appropriately with your crowd. At the point when you can discuss well with your crowd, you will have the option to pass on a message that isn't just clear yet in addition intriguing. This will assist you with creating a more noteworthy e ffect on your crowd just as on your essay.When you are searching for tips for how to paper subjects, at that point you have to begin by going on the web. There are various assets that you can use to find out about the different themes that are accessible to you. There are a lot of ways that you can get some answers concerning what sorts of points will be utilized in the article just as how to compose the paper.

Scholarship Essay Samples - Helping You Write Your Own Essay Fast

Grant Essay Samples - Helping You Write Your Own Essay FastScholarships for UK understudies require numerous understudy article tests to take their papers to the following level. These exposition tests are composed by masters in their field and are intended to be perused rapidly, which makes them the perfect instruments to assist you with composing your paper fast.Scholarship article tests are a superb method to assist you with beginning on your journey to locate the best papers to submit to different colleges and schools. An incredible number of grant understudies compose expositions dependent on test articles. You can discover several them on the web, a significant number of which can be free, and you can even get tests from singular exposition writers.There are a wide range of sorts of paper tests and it is significant that you pick the best for your venture. The exposition tests picked ought to be exceptional, or, more than likely it will be hard to make a legitimate judgment abo ut them. This is on the grounds that it is hard to state what you can do, when you are given a second or third hand record of your accomplishments.If you need to be fruitful, you should have the option to pass on your contemplations and thoughts plainly and briefly. In the event that you don't have this aptitude, at that point almost certainly, you will be attempting to get into a renowned college, when the procedure is in reality simple. On the off chance that you can enhance your papers, at that point you will have made a wise interest in yourself.Although the quantity of grants accessible for UK understudies is immense, the sites and the quantities of these sites are likewise tremendous. The way toward applying for these grants is very basic, yet it very well may be trying to think of an elegantly composed paper. At the point when you have utilized the exhortation that I will furnish you with, you ought to have the option to put down your exposition in account time, which ought t o incredibly expand your odds of being accepted.The data contained in these articles is essential to anybody wishing to get into a US school. There are numerous particular circumstances that can happen in your life that will make it increasingly hard for you to get into your preferred school. In any case, in the event that you submit expositions that are elegantly composed and unmistakably show the explanations behind your failure to go to school, at that point you are bound to get acknowledgment. The beneficial thing about these paper tests is that they are prepared made.Scholarship article tests will help you recorded as a hard copy an exposition that is explicit to your character and your learning style. It will help you in shaping the contentions you have to introduce in your paper and in ensuring that the entirety of your components are secured. You should start to feel sure when you start to utilize the grant exposition tests, and you will be astounded at how rapidly you will have the option to push ahead with your learning.Writing an article regarding any matter can be troublesome, yet it will end up being somewhat simpler as you proceed with your work. Utilizing grant exposition tests will enable you to learn as you work through the procedure, and they will likewise make your work somewhat simpler to oversee, as they are prewritten, instant articles.

How I Came to Be So Involved in Honoring My Mothers and Sisters

How I Came to Be So Involved in Honoring My Mothers and SistersI'm an individual from the 'I wish I had done this' (IFWIM) family. I wish I had done this since I needed to respect my mom and sisters. I am composing this article to state that you can likewise do this with certain papers tests on the web. I am going to share somewhat about how I came to be so associated with this project.I was set for discover how I could respect my mother, who I have never met. Since she has not visited me in years, I felt that I expected to respect her, regardless. I expected to respect her inside and out. So as to achieve this objective, I expected to accomplish something unmistakable, and I knew it. As I was searching for intentions for respect my mother, I discovered some stuff on the web however I didn't have a clue what I ought to do with it.I realized that I needed to support youngsters. I don't generally think about open talking, so I realized that I would need to make sense of how to do this. There are a few different ways to do this, and I was keen on how I could achieve this objective, and I calculated that I would look for some article tests to get a thought of what was accessible. It wasn't well before I found what I was searching for, and I started to get a thought of what I was managing with.I had consistently realized that I was a military dad, however I didn't understand what my experience was. I generally imagined that I was a trooper, and I got into contentions with individuals that I shouldn't have, on the grounds that they believed that I was from another nation. They imagined that I was there to battle, and I was not set up for this kind of antagonism. This is something that I didn't require when it came to respect. I needed to respect them, and the manner in which I did that was by composing articles that I thought were useful to them.I needed to ensure that I made it simple for them to comprehend. I needed to ensure that they could peruse my archives and get a thought of what the substance resembled. I understood that there were a couple of things that I didn't comprehend and I didn't have the foggiest idea how to keep in touch with them, so I needed to ensure that I recorded everything. I needed them to see that there were a few things that they could never really respect their moms and sisters.So I had a great deal of thoughts for how I could support these people, and I had the option to make papers tests that were both helpful and intriguing. Something that I needed to do was ensure that the substance I utilized was something that was useful to the female veteran. I needed to assist them with being fruitful when they returned into society. They ought to progress admirably, and I needed to assist them with doing so.In the end, I simply need to state that I trust that you can get a grip of a portion of the great expositions tests that I have had the option to discover and utilize them to help respect your moms and sisters. I likewi se trust that they can help themselves too. Some of them have approached me for some assistance and I have had no issue in doing as such. It took me some time to make sense of what the best possible approach to help respect my mother's, however I had the option to concoct some incredible techniques.If you have somebody who you need to respect, I believe that I have something for you that you will have the option to use. You can utilize it, and it won't cost you a dime. I have another eBook that I will be discharging soon, and I realize that it will be an incredible asset for you. Have a ton of fun!

Does It Matter What Managers Do - Free Essay Example

Business Strategy Review, 2001, Volume 12 Issue 2, pp 50-58 Does It Matter What Managers Do? Colin Hales After half a century of research, we now have a fair idea of what managers do. This differs both from the â€Å"heroic selfimage† idealisation and from the sanitised â€Å"management science† idealisation. Despite IT and all the talk of empowerment, management as a profession in its own right is, if anything, becoming more, not less, widespread. What managers do therefore matters simply because so many people are doing â€Å"management† as their main role. But does what managers do matter in terms of its effects on the people being managed, and, if so, how? The answer is obviously yes, but the central message of this article is how little we know through systematic research about this – particularly given how much preaching there is on how to do it well. We now have a reasonably clear picture of what managers do. But does it matter what they do and, if so, why? The cynical, not to say nihilistic, tone of this question should not detract from its importance. Unless we believe that managers’ behaviour is intrinsically interesting or self-evidently relevant, what Business Strategy Review  © London Business School matters is its effects. Much research has been devoted to organisational structures and to managers’ decisions and decision-making processes, as well as relating performance measures to outcomes that are essentially financial. There is, however, surprisingly little research on the effects of managerial behaviour on the people being managed. Throughout this article, when we refer to the effects of what managers do, it is these effects on the people being managed that we are concerned with. What Do Managers Do? Some Answers Half a century of research has given us a coherent and illuminating body of evidence on what managers do. The activities common to all or most managers are: ? Acting as figurehead, representative or point of contact for a work unit. Monitoring and disseminating information. Networking. Negotiating with a broad constituency. Planning and scheduling work. Allocating resources to different work activities. Directing and monitoring the work of subordinates. Specific human resource management activities. Problem-solving and handling disturbances to work flow. Innovating processes and products. ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Does It Matter What Managers Do? 51 ? Technical work relating to the manager’s professional or functional specialisation. These generic activities are applied across a wide range of concerns. Managers themselves often emphasise four in particular: ? ? ? These variations occur across individuals, jobs, functional specialisms, levels of manageme nt, forms of organisation, industries/economic sectors and national cultures. (For a more detailed review of the above evidence, see Hales 1986, 1999, 2001. ) What Do Managers Do? Some Unanswered Questions However, this body of evidence is by no means the last word. A plethora of different categories, taxonomies, conceptual frameworks and perspectives confirms the suspicion that what we know about managerial work rather depends on how we go about finding out. More important, there are also questions that this body of research has failed to answer or, indeed, ask. First, it is still not clear which activities are exclusively â€Å"managerial† – as distinct from other behaviours in which managers may engage, and activities which are concerned with â€Å"managing† but are carried out by non-managers or undertaken by everyone as part of their daily lives. The question â€Å"what do managers do and no-one else does? remains unanswered. Second, the descriptions of managerial work have been treated as largely unproblematic, as if what managers must spend their time doing is self-evident and we do not need to delve further into it. The question â€Å"Why do managers do what they do? † has received scant attention from resear chers. Third, although the many documented variations in managerial work make a kind of intuitive sense, they have not been systematically explained. Research to-date has not convincingly shown any substantive causal links, as opposed to correlations, between what managers do and who they are and where they work. For example, whilst it is commonplace to assert that what managers do varies â€Å"by organisation†, how and why organisational structures and processes shape managerial behaviour has not been adequately explained. Thus the question â€Å"Why do managers do different things? † still does not have a satisfactory answer. Finally, and most important of all for my argument here, almost all researchers have shied away from judging whether the managerial behaviours they describe represent, or contribute to, â€Å"good† or â€Å"effective† management from the perspective of the people managed, as opposed to â€Å"good† or â€Å"effective† Day-to-day â€Å"people† management. Management of routine information. Day-to-day monitoring and maintenance of work processes. Non-managerial activities, like conducting or assisting with technical work. ? In short, managers share a common and probably inescapable preoccupation with routine, day-to-day maintenance of the work processes and people for whom they are responsible – keeping the show on the road. This work is characterised by: ? ? Short, interrupted and fragmented activities. An obligation to react to events, problems and requirements of others. A preoccupation with the urgent, ad hoc and unforeseen, rather than the planned. The embedding or nesting of activities within others. A high level of verbal interaction, often face-toface or by phone but now, increasingly, by email. A degree of tension, pressure and conflict in seeking to juggle competing demands. Considerable choice and negotiation over the nature and boundaries of the job and how it is done. ? ? ? ? ? Beyond these common characteristics, managerial work has been shown to vary considerably in terms of: ? The balance between different elements of work content. Types of contact patterns. Patterns or rhythms of work. Where work is carried out. The extent of dependency on others. The amount of interaction involved. The degree of choice that is available. ? ? ? ? ? ? Summer 2001 52 Colin Hales profitability-related outcomes of managerial (or organisational) decisions or processes. There has been a reluctance to answer the question â€Å"Does managerial behaviour make a difference? † – or, more bluntly, â€Å"Does it matter what managers do? Rarely is the research evidence on managerial behaviour subjected to the brusque question: â€Å"so what? † Let us look at these distinctions in a bit more detail. When research on management was in its infancy, purely descriptive accounts based on systematic research were a welcome antidote to the assorted reminiscences, homilies, flatteries, self-delusions, and speculations that were the staple of writing about the practice of m anagement. In this context, valid, empirical research on managerial behaviour is selfevidently interesting, pertinent and valuable. Management researchers also seek to justify their work in terms of its ability to improve the processes that might themselves shape â€Å"Managers share a how managers work, such common and as management education, probably inescapable training, recruitment and preoccupation with selection (by showing what routine, day-to-day managers are to be trained and recruited for) or managerial maintenance of the appraisal, remuneration and work processes and career planning (by showing people for whom they are responsible† what managers should be rewarded and appraised on). In other words, certain forms of managerial behaviour are implicitly regarded as the end to which these other activities should be directed. Rarely, however, is better understanding of managerial behaviour justified in terms of its consequences, where managerial behaviour is examined as the means by which other, desirable or undesirable, outcomes are brought about. Nor will it do to defend this omission by arguing that managerial behaviour can be subject only to a kind of internal audit, confined to examining the extent to which it matches its own internal dynamics or rules of the game. This not only begs the question about who defines these rules, but also forecloses any discussion of what managers are for, and, therefore, whether their behaviour matters to anyone else and, if so, how. Much of the work on managerial competencies treats the measurable ability to perform specific types of managerial work, rather than its effects, as the desired end. What is missing is an examination of the behaviours that actually connect the skills and traits that constitute competencies with performance outcomes – in other words, an indication of what â€Å"competent† managers actually do. Again, it is assumed that the behaviour that flows from the possession of certain competencies is self-evident or a black box that does not merit direct investigation. Is the Role of Managers Changing? Recently, a growing body of opinion has implied that interest in managerial behaviour, never mind any attempt to link it with performance outcomes, has become redundant. Radical organisational restructuring and changes in the language of management are said to be eliminating or marginalizing the manager as a distinctive or decisive organisational role. There is nothing new in these claims: the demise of the manager has long been contemplated, not to say willed, by those sceptical of what, if anything, managers â€Å"do†. However, whereas before the claim was that management as a practice would implode under the weight of its own contradictions, now the claim is that the manager will disappear as a result of dramatic changes in organisational structures made inevitable by competitive pressures and technology. Most attention has been on the apparent shift from hierarchical and rule-bound bureaucracies to decentralised and empowered networks or postbureaucratic organisations. In these new postbureaucratic organisations, skilled knowledge workers and smart machines combine in flexible, task- or problem-based self-managing teams. These, in turn, are organised in loose, federated networks, where expertise, problem-solving and learning, rather than precedents and procedures, shape how work is done and performance, not conformity, is the only criterion of effectiveness (see, for example, Drucker 1988, Hecksher and Donnellon 1994, Handy 1989). Two somewhat different futures for managers are envisaged as a consequence of these changes, one more optimistic than the other. The first, more optimistic, view contends that whilst some managerial posts – predominantly in middle management – disappear, the important change is to the character of managerial work. According to this new managerial work thesis, Business Strategy Review Does It Matter What Managers Do? 53 the key driver is the atrophy of hierarchy and rules. In this world, middle managers run small, decentralised business units in entrepreneurial ways, free from the stifling constraints of regulatory controls and the demands of bureaucratic reporting relationships. Empowered employees work in self-managing teams free from day-to-day managerial control, leaving front-line managers to function as team leaders, coordinators and facilitators. Consequently, the traditional role of manager disappears, to be replaced by a particular brand of professional knowledge worker charged with a looser entrepreneurial or leadership role (Dopson and Stewart 1990, Kanter 1989, Mintzberg 1998). These new â€Å"managerorchestrators† must grapple with the fuzzy, complex task of facilitating and co-ordinating the diverse fforts of a variegated network of participants. Inspiration, expert advice, collaboration, negotiation and instigation of change replace the mundanities of command, control and administration. â€Å"New† managers lead teams, negotiate integrated effort across boundaries, inspire and promote organisational learning, and conceive, instigate and facilitate change. Their new-found freedom from hierarchical scrutiny and control both enables and obliges them to exercise judgement, unleash creativity and take risks. In short, they cast off the dowdy feathers of administration for the rich plumage of leadership. The more pessimistic prognosis claims that the distinct job of manager will disappear. Middle management jobs will go as functional departments co-ordinated through a hierarchical system of line management are replaced by business units managed by teams to whom operational control has been decentralised and which report directly to the centre through electronic, rather than human, information and control systems. In this world, the middle management functions of enforcing operational controls and conveying control information pass to unit management teams and IT systems respectively. First-line management jobs supposedly will disappear as functional work groups under day-to-day managerial direction and control are replaced by empowered self-managing teams. Thus, where once stood towering, elaborate management structures, there will be empty spaces across which corporate leaders on the one hand and low-rise business units and empowered teams on the other communicate directly and electronically. Periodic delayerings represent the progressive flattening (in every sense) of managerial hierarchies to clear the ground for this. Those managers who remain will be there to facilitate their own departure by coaching and empowering those about to start managing themselves. The result will be the â€Å"postmanagement corporation†, liberated from the stultifying dead hand of the â€Å"corpocracy† (Koch and Godden 1996). For other observers, the decisive recent change has been not to the architecture of organisations but to the tenor of management discourse and how management is conceived and understood. A â€Å"Rarely is the recurring theme in this new research evidence on language of management is managerial the de-coupling of behaviour subjected management as a practice to the brusque from formally designated question: â€Å"so managerial roles, such that what? †Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"we are all managers now†, even if, in practice, â€Å"we always were† (Grey 1999). The Taylorist ideology that conception must be separated from execution has been supplanted by an empowerment ideology that they should be re-combined. Managers Are Everywhere However, the â€Å"post-bureaucratic†, network organisation and the radical reconfiguration or demise of the managerial role that will accompany it may be still some way off. Radically new organisational forms remain confined to a few recurring and celebrated cases and extravagant claims about the adoption of such forms are often little more than rhetoric, given that much recent organisational change has entailed an intensification, not a departure from, bureaucratic â€Å"In short, they controls. Further, the extent cast off the dowdy of decentralisation and feathers of empowerment associated administration for with the transition to post- the rich plumage bureaucratic organisation of leadership† has also been exaggerated, as a number of research studies have found. Supposedly decentralised organisations often undergo very modest organisational change and, consequently, there is little change to managers’ roles and work practices. Fully autonomous, selfmanaging work teams are restricted to a few specialised and exceptional instances and there is often a stark contrast between the extravagant Summer 2001 4 Colin Hales rhetoric and the modest reality of empowerment programmes (Hales 2000). Consequently, much recent organisational change has created not post-bureaucratic, network organisations but merely slimmed-down versions of bureaucracy – â€Å"bureaucracy-lite†, so to speak. The principle of hierarchy, where there is co-ordination through individu al vertical responsibility and accountability, has not been abandoned, but retained in an attenuated and more efficient form. Centrally-imposed rules, designed to give a heavy steer to managerial conduct, have not been torn up â€Å"Many business but have been rewritten organisations in the US to focus on results and UK – supposedly rather than processes. the super-thin models These changes to that promoted the different varieties of outbreak of copycat bureaucratic control, rather than radically corporate anorexia – new forms of organbecame, during the isation, mean that there 1990s, not lean and mean but fat and mean, remains some-thing with a growing number very familiar about the manager’s role. It of managers, if a continues to be defined dwindling number of in terms of individual workers† responsibility for the performance of an identifiable, bounded organisational sub-unit and vertical accountability to a boss for that performance. Little fundamental change to the definition of the managerial role means little change to the substance of managers’ work activities. Managers continue to be preoccupied with routine, dayto-day monitoring and maintenance of work processes, managing staff and processing information – often to the exclusion of instigating change, developing staff or acting more entrepreneurially. For all the fashionable hype about leadership, it is unfashionable management that is being practised and its fundamental characteristics have not changed (Hilmer and Donaldson 1996). Reports of the death of the â€Å"manager† are a trifle premature. In fact, other evidence suggests quite the reverse – a burgeoning of managerial positions in some sectors and the spread of â€Å"managerialism† to a growing number of social institutions. Even many business organisations in the US and UK – supposedly the superthin models that prompted the outbreak of copycat corporate anorexia – became, during the 1990s, not ean and mean but fat and mean, with a growing numbers of managers, if a dwindling number of workers (Gordon 1996). Additionally, many public sector and voluntary organisations (eg health, education, charities, the police, the BBC), in which professionals or members had previously managed themselves, became subject to tighter and more elaborate mana gerial controls executed by a growing body of administrators. Greater accountability for and, hence, tighter control over, public expenditure and the creation of forms of internal market apparently required an army of expensive administrators to police. Equally ironically, these changes were pushed through under the ideological banner of the enterprise culture. The widespread disempowerment of professionals in favour of managerial control has meant that the recent accusation that the BBC has become over-managed and under-led chimes funereally elsewhere. The Growth of Managerialism â€Å"Managerialism† – the application of a particular utilitarian and supposedly value-neutral means-ends logic – increasingly pervades spheres of life outside the workplace. Consumers are â€Å"managed† through the ever more laborate paraphernalia of marketing, citizens are increasingly managed in their dealings with the state and its agencies or in their use of public space, and political parties offer not alternative visions of society but alternative management teams, aspiring to do what works and asking to be judged on delivery. Likewise, consumers must increasingly â€Å"manage† their purchasing behaviour, by attem pting to make informed choices and negotiate their way around a bewildering array of offerings; families feel compelled to â€Å"manage† their domestic life (how F. W. Taylor would have approved of the notion of quality time spent with one’s children) and people â€Å"manage† their relationships, substituting friends for an instrumentally constructed network of contacts. The manager, whether called that or not, has become the quintessential contemporary character embodying the triumph, at least for now, of manipulative social relations in the utilitarian pursuit of amoral efficiency. The locus of social decision-making has, in many instances, shifted from democratic processes between individual and state to negotiation and transaction amongst organisations. Further, the basis of that decision-making has shifted from the Business Strategy Review Does It Matter What Managers Do? 55 pursuit of the public good, where considerations of content and effectiveness predominate, to the reconciliation of private interests in which considerations of form and efficiency prevail. In these corporatist processes, managers have become the key protagonists and managerialism is the guiding principle (Entenman 1993). Thus, whilst managers may have waned here and waxed there, management as a practice (whoever carries it out) and managerialism as an ideology (whoever subscribes to it) have flourished. Managers continue to matter because there is still a large and growing number of them, either in the conventional sense of those taking responsibility for the work of others or in the sense of de facto managers disciplining themselves in their work and their lives according to a particular instrumental logic. How Managers Matter: The Problem of Managerial and Leader Effectiveness Even if managers continue to matter, whether it matters what they do, in the sense of there being clear links between their behaviour and particular kinds of outcome, is less clear-cut. Of course, much depends upon which outcomes are considered relevant or important. Until now, a top-down organisational perspective has predominated with managerial impacts assessed in terms of the performance of the organisation, sub-unit or work group for which the manager is re-sponsible. There is a general conviction that certain kinds of managerial behaviour are more effective because they are more likely to bring about desirable organisational outcomes – employees work â€Å"better†, resources are used more efficiently, goods and services are more effectively delivered, stakeholder needs are more accurately met, and so on. Anecdotal or circumstantial evidence in support of this view needs to be treated with some caution. Autobiographies depicting the CEO as hero singlehandedly building up a successful enterprise or turning around an ailing one are, inevitably, selective and partial. The research evidence is equivocal. Whether research purports to study â€Å"leader effectiveness† or â€Å"managerial effectiveness† is of little consequence since the labels are more a reflection of academic tribalism than real differences in focus. But, whatever the preferred terminology, the research evidence is an imperfect guide to whether it matters what managers do. Survey evidence sometimes confirms the conventional wisdom that top managers influence business performance whilst at other times it does not. Either way, there is the danger of a circular logic which says that managers of highly performing organisations must, perforce, be â€Å"effective† and vice versa. More experimental, or quasi-experimental, research on manager/leader effectiveness is hampered by recurring and seemingly intractable problems of measurement and validity and, for all its volume, remains inconclusive. However managerial effectiveness is measured, there are difficulties. If it is judged â€Å"often the focus is on in terms of organisational managers’ traits, or group performance personality or attitudes outcomes, much depends rather than their actual on the choice of behaviour – in effect, performance criteria. looking at who Given the susceptibility of managers are rather financial measures to than what they do† other influences, there have been recent attempts to evolve broader measures of long-term performance, such as economic value added, performance pyramids and the balanced scorecard. In all of these, however, the problem of tracing collective performance to individual behaviour still has to be resolved. Studies that rely on reputational measures â€Å"Tighter control over of effectiveness, based on others’ judgements of public expenditure managers’ proficiency or and the creation of promotability, run the forms of internal risks of simply capturing market apparently self-fulfilling prophecies. required an army of In any case, often the expensive focus is on managers’ traits, administrators to personality or attitudes police† rather than their actual behaviour – in effect, looking at who managers are rather than what they do. Whilst this approach may identify associations between personal characteristics and measures of group performance it fails to identify the causal connections between them. The overall result is a suggestion that certain traits, attitudes or behaviours may promote certain favourable organisational outcomes but little sense of how they do so. Summer 2001 56 Colin Hales As well as the problem of measurement there is also the wider question of whether it is sensible to regard the actions of individual managers as capable of changing the organisational milieu in which they operate. It may be more appropriate to regard managers as social actors whose actions and identities are shaped and constrained by, as well as â€Å"Individual serving to reproduce, the managers may not social and institutional make a difference systems in which they are because no-one does: located. This may be so even in the exceptional case organisational of highly charismatic outcomes emerge, founders of organisations without evident who are more able than authorship, from most to stamp their complex negotiated personal imprint upon interactions† them and whose personal values become embodied in organisational processes. Once established, organisations take on a life of their own as past actions and events become institutionalised into norms and practices and ideas that entrap their creators. How much more so is this the case for middle managers who are recruited to, and in the image of, a pre-existing institution – or for senior managers who have assiduously scaled the organisational ladder. For example, it is interesting how The Economist’s weekly â€Å"Face Value† column on individual Chief Executives often tells a story more of incumbency and battles against organisational baggage than of consequential leadership. Individual managers may not make a difference because no-one does: organisational outcomes emerge, without evident â€Å"Studies that do authorship, from complex incorporate this negotiated interactions – view from below even if, after the event, have tended to focus participants and observers on subordinates’ may try to make sense of these outcomes by perceptions of the attributing them to the managers actions of specific themselves, rather individuals. Consider, for than of particular forms of managerial example, how a number of recent UK enquiries behaviour† into organisational failure (eg the Redfern report on Alderhey hospital, the Phillips report on BSE and the Cullen enquiry into the Paddington train crash) have all concluded that a â€Å"failure of management† meant not the failure of particular individual managers but of management systems and processes – not a particular manager’s culpability but rather â€Å"institutional paralysis†. How Managers Matter: An Alternative Perspective An alternative way of approaching the issue of whether it matters what managers do, which has until now been largely neglected by management research, is to consider the problem from the point of view of those being managed. Specifically, does managers’ behaviour impact significantly upon the experience of those whom they are managing? In other words, does it matter to others what managers do? Certainly, there is implicit recognition in a number of places that it does. How employees are â€Å"managed†, in the broad sense of the kinds of work regimes to which they are subject, has long been seen as having a decisive effect on their experience of work and, hence, their satisfaction with and commitment to it. For example, most criticisms of both bureaucracy and scientific management are couched in terms of their dehumanising or de-motivating effects on those who are managed in this way. More specifically, it has long been argued that particular human resource management strategies and policies are more likely to enhance employee experience of work and thus improve their performance at work (for example, Pfeffer 1995). There is a popular perception too that not only management systems but also individual managers can make a difference in this respect. Most employees, for example, would be able to give instances of managers for whom, in their experience, it was a pleasure to work and others about whom the opposite could be said. However, reliable evidence on the relationship between managers’ behaviour and employees’ experience is hard to come by. Studies of manager (or leader) effectiveness attempt to link managerial attributes or behaviour to work group performance without examining the meanings that those being managed place upon that behaviour. Ethnographic studies offer rich accounts of the meanings that managers themselves place upon their own actions but say little about how their actions are interpreted by others. Studies that do incorporate this view from below have tended to focus on subordinates’ perceptions of the managers themselves, rather than of particular forms of managerial behaviour, often more as part of a wider Business Strategy Review Does It Matter What Managers Do? 57 When Managers Did Make a Difference? One graphic demonstration of the disastrous effect that managerial (or â€Å"leader†) behaviour can have upon those being managed, or led, is offered in Alan Clark’s book, The Donkeys. In it, Clark adduces systematic, compelling and corroborated evidence, drawn from War Office records, eyewitness accounts, diaries and letters, that demonstrates how a series of increasingly catastrophic military blunders in the first year of the Great War were directly attributable to the actions, or, at times, inactions, of the British High Command. These were fivefold. First was the failure to exploit the German retreat and disarray with the use of cavalry after the Battle of the Marne in September 1914, under conditions that the High Command spent the rest of the war attempting, at huge human cost, to recreate. Second was the refusal, during the winter of 1914-15, to consolidate, through prudent withdrawal, the subsequent trench-line around Ypres to one that could be defended without heavy casualties. Third was the failure to exploit the breakthrough at Neuve Chapelle in March 1915 until it was too late, followed by a persistence with attacks when there was no longer any chance of success – an action that resulted in total casualties of about 60,000. Fourth was the disastrous Aubers Ridge offensive of May 1915 in which over 11,000 were killed in a single day and which more or less completed the destruction of the regular army. Finally came the ill-conceived attack at Loos in September 1915 in which failure to exploit a breakthrough on the first day (a breakthrough that had been achieved entirely through the courage of the attacking men) was followed by a series of suicidal frontal assaults against machine-gun fire in which, in the space of three and a half hours, 12 battalions numbering 10,000 conscripts suffered 8,246 casualties. In short, Clark paints a picture of hesitancy and procrastination when rapid, decisive action was called for and of profligate recklessness when caution and circumspection were required. Clark shows how this resulted directly from the decisions and, at times, indecision, of particular generals in the British High Command. These, in turn, sprang from a disastrous admixture of: personal vanity and an overwhelming desire not to damage a spuriouslygained â€Å"reputation†; a preoccupation with individual careerism and intrigue disguised by claims of dedication to a common cause; petty jealousies and rivalries prosecuted behind superficial displays of loyalty and comradeship; an arrogance and indifference towards those who had to carry out their orders; and, above all, an individual and collective incompetence coupled with resentment of those possessed of greater talent or nerve and a proclivity to blame anyone but themselves for the consequences of their mistakes. oncern with workplace conflict. Yet, occasionally powerful evidence emerges to suggest that managers’ or leaders’ behaviour can have a decisive, not to say catastrophic, effect (see box). Conclusion Despite claims that they are about to be included in the roll-call of quaint trades and defunct occupations, managers continue to matter. Headline-grabbing instances of delayering have been more than offset by the less dramatic burgeoning of managerial positions in private sector and – even more – public sector rganisations and by the spread of the cult of managerialism within and beyond the workplace. But if managers still matter, whether it matters what they do and, if so, how has not been satisfactorily investigated, never mind resolved, by research. Many studies of managers at work avoid the issue altogether whilst studies of managerial (or leader) effectiveness often treat the behaviours that mediate between certain managerial attributes and group performance as selfevident. Even if there remains a popular suspicion, based on personal experience, that individual managers can, by their actions (or inactions), make a difference, how they do so and the extent to which they do so are far from clear. Indeed, a lot of research on managerial work and effectiveness is not only inconclusive but myopic in that it disregards the effect of managerial behaviour on the experience of those being managed. By doing so, it not only fails to recognise the consequences of this for group performance but also fails to give voice Summer 2001 58 Colin Hales o those who are as central to the management process as managers themselves. Furthermore, those whose voice is not being heard are those for whom managers are still, generally, held responsible, given that, in practice, few organisations have abandoned the principle of hierarchy by which individual managers are held responsible and accountable, even if they have marginally reduced the number of hierarchical levels. Until res earch begins to listen to this voice, the suspicion that managers’ behaviour colours the experience of those whom they manage, for the worse as much as for the better, will remain only a suspicion. Consequently, our understanding of managerial practices and, more broadly, our conception of what managerial responsibility means will remain unbalanced and incomplete. And so will our efforts to educate and train managers. Colin Hales is Professor of Management and Director of the Centre for Research on Managerial Behaviour at Westminster Business School, London. References Clark, A. (1961) The Donkeys, London: Pimlico. Dopson, S. and Stewart, R. (1990) What is Happening to Middle Management? British Journal of Management 1(1): 3-16. Drucker, P. 1988) The Coming of the New Organization, Harvard Business Review, Jan/Feb: 4553. Entenman, W. F. (1993) Managerialism: The Emergence of a New Ideology, University of Wisconsin Press. Gordon, D. (1996) Fat and Mean: The Corporate Squeeze of Working Americans and the Myth of Managerial Downsizing, New York: Free Press. Grey, C. 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